Former European industrial centres such as Sheffield which were facing disaster after the decline of their traditional manufacturing bases are experiencing a remarkable turnaround, according to a report.
The two-year study by the London School of Economics (LSE) examined seven cities which appeared to have a bleak future 20 years ago but have made a "dazzling comeback" by combining a focus on their economies with improvements to the environment and h
elping people back to work.
As well as Sheffield and Belfast in the UK, the research examined changes in Leipzig, Bremen, Bilbao, Turin and St Etienne.
The team found all seven cities used a similar blueprint for successfully rebuilding themselves. They said this included bidding for high-profile sporting and cultural events, cleaning and renovating the street environment, restoring major landmarks and new skills training.
Their strategies also relied on mixing funding from public and private sources.
According to the LSE report, this has resulted in all seven cities seeing a development of hi-tech businesses and a halt in the depopulation of inner cities.
Report author Professor Anne Power said: "These former industrial cities have proved far more resilient than many people dared hope.
"During the 1980s and 1990s they lost up to 80% of their manufacturing jobs and this led to polarised neighbourhoods, crumbling city centres and creaking public transport, schools and healthcare.
"Their very future was in question. Our report shows a pattern book of recovery that the cities used to fight back. They adopted multiple strategies which didn't only focus on their economy but also involved improving the urban environment and helping their disadvantaged populations back to work. It's clear that cities cannot recover without mixing all three of these elements."
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